Physical evidence preserved in the bones of Middle Kingdom royal women suggests that weapons buried alongside several ancient Egyptian princesses were not merely ceremonial. Researchers say the skeletal remains reveal signs of lifelong archery, hunting, and other demanding activities, challenging long-standing assumptions about the roles of elite women in ancient Egypt.
For generations, archaeologists have debated why weapons appeared in the burial chambers of some ancient Egyptian princesses. Many scholars interpreted bows, arrows, daggers, and maces as symbolic objects placed in royal tombs rather than equipment their owners had actually used.
A new reassessment of royal mummies from Egypt’s Middle Kingdom now presents a different picture. By examining the skeletal remains of six members of the royal family, researchers found evidence that several of the women regularly performed physically demanding activities consistent with using those very weapons during their lifetimes.
“Our findings show that members of the royal family, especially the women, were active participants in skilled, physically demanding activities such as archery and hunting,” said lead author Dr. Zeinab Hashesh. “This conclusion is supported by the way their bones developed to sustain heavy muscle use, which corresponds directly to the weapons discovered in their tombs.”
Royal mummies rediscovered after decades
The study focused on six royal mummies excavated in the 1890s at Dahshur, an ancient funerary complex known for its pyramids and underground shaft tombs. Although the mummies had been discovered more than a century ago, they were effectively lost for many years before being rediscovered during a curation project at the Egyptian Museum in 2020.
Four of the individuals were sisters, daughters of Pharaoh Amenemhat II. They had been buried in matching underground chambers, with Princess Ita placed beside Princess Khenmet, and Princess Itaweret buried alongside an unidentified woman provisionally identified as Princess Sathathormeryt.
The princesses were interred with grave goods that included bows, arrows, and a finely crafted dagger, objects traditionally associated with male warriors. Princess Ita’s coffin contained an especially notable dagger. Similar weapons and royal regalia accompanied Princess Noub-Hotep and King Hor, the two other royal individuals included in the research.
Although the mummies had undergone careful embalming, their soft tissues had deteriorated into powder over time. Some skeletal elements were also missing, including all of the princesses’ skulls, which disappeared during the early 20th century.
Despite those losses, enough of the skeletons remained intact for researchers to estimate each person’s age, biological sex, stature, and aspects of their health and physical activity.
Bones reveal years of demanding physical activity
Rather than relying on the burial objects alone, the researchers examined how muscles and ligaments had shaped the skeletons throughout life.
According to the study, Princess Ita, who died between 28 and 34 years of age, displayed particularly strong upper-body muscle attachment sites. The researchers say these features indicate repeated use of weapons such as maces or daggers.
Princess Khenmet, who died in her late 30s or 40s, showed evidence of bone thinning but also unusually robust ligament attachments, suggesting sustained physical activity despite changes in bone density.
The skeleton of Princess Itaweret, who died between 20 and 34 years old, revealed healed rib fractures and injuries to her foot. Her bones also exhibited characteristics the researchers associate with skilled archery.
“We found pronounced development in the upper limbs of these individuals, which correlates to repetitive, high-intensity actions like pulling a bowstring or stabilizing a weapon, proving these activities were habitual throughout their lives,” Hashesh explained. “This directly explains the presence of bows, arrows and maces in the women’s tombs; these were not just symbolic gifts but tools they actively used.”
The same type of skeletal evidence also suggested that both Princess Noub-Hotep and King Hor practiced archery.
Injuries point to active lives—and successful recovery
The skeletons preserved more than signs of strength. They also recorded injuries and illnesses experienced during life.
Princess Itaweret survived broken ribs that researchers believe may have resulted from a fall or a forceful impact. Several members of the group showed evidence of infections or nutritional deficiencies.
The researchers say such injuries are consistent with lives involving strenuous physical activities rather than remaining isolated from demanding tasks.
“These injuries were most likely caused by accidents, falls, hard blows or other impacts linked to an active lifestyle, whether through hunting, military training or other demanding activities,” Hashesh said.
The team noted that the injuries had healed successfully, indicating that these royals likely received effective medical treatment for their era.
“What is remarkable is that the injuries healed well,” Hashesh added, “which suggests they had access to advanced medical care for their time.”
Shared skeletal features hint at family relationships
The researchers also identified unusual abnormalities in the sisters’ spines.
Because the same rare spinal traits appeared in multiple siblings, the authors suggest the findings indicate that their parents and extended family were closely related.
While the study was able to reconstruct important aspects of the royals’ lives, the missing skulls limited what could be learned. The researchers also noted that some planned analyses remain unfinished.
For example, they hope to conduct stable isotope analysis, which could provide additional insight into the nutritional deficiencies observed in some of the skeletons.
Looking beyond treasures to the people themselves
For Hashesh, the project represents more than an analysis of ancient bones. She hopes future research can reconstruct the lives of these royal individuals in greater detail, including their health, family relationships, and political roles.
“Our dream would be to go far beyond simply identifying the Dahshur royals,” she said. “We would try to tell their full life stories, their families, health and even their political roles, with as much detail as possible.”
She also envisions preserving the remains through ethical conservation, producing 3D prints for teaching and virtual exhibitions, and displaying the individuals alongside their jewelry, weapons, and funerary objects while respecting how they were originally buried.
“Their objects and jewelry are truly fascinating, breathtaking in their craftsmanship,” Hashesh said. “Yet, while archaeologists have long focused on preserving these treasures, the people themselves were often forgotten. Our study seeks to change that.”
The study was published in Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology.
